At the chemistry exam, a university applicant must:
demonstrate knowledge of the basic theoretical principles of chemistry;
be able to apply the theoretical principles of chemistry when considering the main classes of inorganic and organic substances;
be able to reveal the dependence of the properties of substances on their composition and structure;
know the properties of the most important substances used in industry and in everyday life;
understand the basics scientific principles the most important chemical industries (without going into details of the design of chemical equipment);
solve standard and combined problems in the main branches of chemistry.
During the exam you can use the following tables: “Periodic table chemical elements D. I. Mendeleev”, “Solubility of bases, acids and salts in water”, “Electrochemical series of standard electrode potentials”. When solving problems, you are allowed to use a calculator.
The exam papers for the oral exam include four questions: the first is on the theoretical foundations of chemistry, the second is on inorganic chemistry, the third is on organic chemistry, and the fourth is a problem. It is possible to include three questions on tickets.
Written exam tickets can contain up to 10 tasks with differentiated assessment, covering all sections of the program for applicants.
Theoretical foundations of chemistry
1. Subject and tasks of chemistry. Physical and chemical phenomena. The place of chemistry among the natural sciences. Chemistry and ecology.
2. Fundamentals of atomic molecular theory. The concept of atom, element, substance. Relative atomic and relative molecular weight. A mole is a unit of quantity of a substance. Molar mass. Laws of stoichiometry: law of conservation of mass of matter, law of constancy of composition. Relative gas density.
3. Chemical elements. Signs of chemical elements and chemical formulas. Simple substance compound. Allotropy.
4. The structure of the atom. Atomic nucleus. Isotopes. Stable and unstable nuclei. Radioactive transformations, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Radioactive decay equation. Half life.
5. The dual nature of the electron. The structure of the electronic shells of atoms. Quantum numbers. Atomic orbitals. Electronic configurations of atoms in the ground and excited states.
6. D. I. Mendeleev’s discovery of the periodic law and the creation of the periodic system of chemical elements. Modern formulation of the periodic law. Structure of the periodic system: large and small periods, groups and subgroups. Dependence of the properties of elements and the compounds they form on the position of the element in the periodic table.
7. Types of chemical bonds: covalent (polar and non-polar), ionic, metallic, hydrogen. Mechanisms of covalent bond formation: exchange and donor-acceptor. Energy of communication. Electronegativity. Polarity of connection, inductive effect. Multiple connections. Orbital hybridization model. Relationship between the electronic structure of molecules and their geometric structure (using the example of compounds of elements of the 2nd period). Delocalization of electrons in conjugated systems, mesomeric effect.
8. Valency and oxidation state. Structural formulas. Isomerism. Types of isomerism, structural and spatial isomerism.
9. Aggregate states of substances and transitions between them depending on temperature and pressure. Gases. Gas laws. Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation.
Avogadro's law, molar volume. Liquids. Association of molecules in liquids. Solids. The main types of crystal lattices: cubic and hexagonal.
10. Classification of chemical reactions: reactions of connection, decomposition, substitution, exchange. Redox reactions. Determination of stoichiometric coefficients in the equations of redox reactions. A range of standard electrode potentials.
11. Thermal effects of chemical reactions. Thermochemical equations. Heat (enthalpy) of formation of chemical compounds. Hess's law and consequences from it.
12. Rate of chemical reactions. Dependence of the reaction rate on the nature and concentration of reactants, temperature. Rate constant chemical reaction. Activation energy. Catalysis and catalysts.
13. Reversibility of chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium and conditions for its displacement, Le Chatelier's principle. Equilibrium constant, degree of conversion.
14. Solutions. The solubility of substances and its dependence on temperature, pressure, and the nature of the solvent. Ways to express the concentration of solutions: mass fraction, mole fraction, molar concentration. Solid solutions. Alloys.
15. Strong and weak electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation. Dissociation constant. Degree of dissociation. Ionic reaction equations. Properties of acids, bases and salts in the light of Arrhenius' theory of electrolytic dissociation. Hydrolysis of salts. Electrolysis aqueous solutions and molten salts. Processes occurring at the cathode and anode.
Inorganic chemistry
Based on the periodic law, applicants must be able to give a comparative description of elements in groups and periods.
Characteristics of an element include: the electronic configuration of the atom; possible valencies and oxidation states of the element in compounds; forms of simple substances and main types of compounds, their physical and chemical properties, laboratory and industrial methods of production; the prevalence of the element and its compounds in nature, the practical significance and areas of application of its compounds. When describing chemical properties, reactions involving inorganic and organic compounds (acid-base and redox transformations), as well as qualitative reactions, should be reflected.
1. The main classes of inorganic substances, their names (nomenclature), the relationship between them.
2. Oxides and peroxides. Types of oxides. Methods of preparation, properties of oxides and peroxides.
3. Bases, methods of preparation, properties.
4. Acids, their classification, general properties, methods of obtaining.
5. Salts, their composition, chemical properties, methods of production.
6. Metals, their position in the periodic table. Physical and chemical properties. Main methods of obtaining. Metals and alloys in technology.
7. General characteristics of alkali metals. Oxides, peroxides, hydroxides and salts of alkali metals. Potash fertilizers.
8. General characteristics of the elements of the main subgroup of group II of the periodic system. Calcium and its compounds. Water hardness and ways to eliminate it.
9. General characteristics of the elements of the main subgroup Group III periodic system. Aluminum. Amphotericity of aluminum oxide and hydroxide.
10. Iron, its oxides and hydroxides, the dependence of their properties on the degree of oxidation of iron. Chemical reactions underlying the production of iron and steel. The role of iron and its alloys in technology.
11. Hydrogen, its interaction with metals, non-metals, oxides, organic compounds.
12. Oxygen, its allotropic forms. Properties of ozone. Oxides and peroxides.
13. Water, structure of water. Physical and chemical properties of water. Crystal hydrates. Hydrogen peroxide.
14. General characteristics of halogens. Hydrogen halides. Halides. Oxygen-containing chlorine compounds.
15. General characteristics of the elements of the main subgroup of group VI of the periodic system. Sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide, sulfides. Sulfur oxides (IV) and (VI), preparation, properties. Sulfurous and sulfuric acids, their properties. Salts of sulfurous and sulfuric acids. Production of sulfuric acid.
16. General characteristics of the elements of the main subgroup of group V of the periodic table. Nitrogen. Ammonia, its industrial synthesis. Ammonium salts. Nitrides. Nitrogen oxides. Nitrous and nitric acids and their salts. Nitrogen fertilizers.
17. Phosphorus, its allotropic forms. Phosphine, phosphides. Phosphorus (V) oxide. Ortho-, meta- and diphosphoric acids. Orthophosphates. Phosphorus fertilizers.
18. General characteristics of the elements of the main subgroup of group IV of the periodic table. Carbon, its allotropic forms. Oxides of carbon (II) and (IV). Carbonic acid and its salts. Calcium and aluminum carbides.
19. Silicon. Silan. Magnesium silicide. Silicon(IV) oxide. Silicic acid and its soybeans.
Organic chemistry
The characteristics of each class of organic compounds include: features of the electronic and spatial structure of compounds of this class, patterns of changes in physical and chemical properties in the homologous series, nomenclature, types of isomerism, main types of chemical reactions and their mechanisms.
Characteristics of specific compounds include physical and chemical properties, laboratory and industrial methods of preparation, and areas of application. When describing chemical properties, it is necessary to take into account reactions involving both a radical and a functional group.
1. The theory of the structure of organic compounds by A. M. Butlerov. Dependence of the properties of substances on their structure. Types of isomerism. The nature of chemical bonds in molecules of organic compounds, homo- and heterolytic methods of breaking bonds. The concept of free radicals.
2. Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes and cycloalkanes), their electronic and spatial structure (hybridization). Nomenclature, isomerism.
3. Alkenes, their electronic and spatial structure (-hybridization, and -bonds). Nomenclature, isomerism. Markovnikov's rule. Cycloalkenes. Conjugated diene hydrocarbons, features of their chemical properties.
4. Acetylene hydrocarbons (alkynes), their electronic and spatial structure (-hybridization, and -bonds). Nomenclature. Acidic properties of alkynes. Kucherov's reaction.
5. Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes). Benzene, electronic and spatial structure (-hybridization). Benzene homologues. The concept of the mutual influence of atoms using the example of toluene (reaction of an aromatic system and a hydrocarbon radical).
6. Natural sources of hydrocarbons: oil, natural and associated petroleum gases, coal. Oil distillation. Cracking. Products obtained from petroleum, their application.
7. Alcohols. Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. Nomenclature, structure, chemical properties monohydric alcohols. Industrial synthesis of ethanol. Polyhydric alcohols (ethylene glycol, glycerin), features of chemical properties.
8. Phenol, its structure, mutual influence of atoms in the molecule. Chemical properties of phenol, comparison with the properties of aliphatic alcohols.
9. Aldehydes. Nomenclature, structure, physical and chemical properties. Features of the carbonyl group. Formic and acetaldehydes, preparation, application. The concept of ketones.
10. Carboxylic acids. Nomenclature, structure, physical and chemical properties.
Mutual influence of the carboxyl group and hydrocarbon radical. Saturated, unsaturated and aromatic acids. Examples of acids: formic acid (its features), acetic, benzoic, stearic, oleic acids.
11. Esters. Structure, chemical properties. Esterification reaction. Fats, their role in nature, chemical processing of fats (hydrolysis, hydrogenation).
12. Carbohydrates. Monosaccharides: ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, fructose, their structure, physical and chemical properties, role in nature. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides: starch and cellulose.
13. Amines. Aliphatic and aromatic amines. Mutual influence of atoms using the example of aniline. Primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
14. Amino acids and hydroxy acids. Structure, chemical properties, isomerism. Examples of hydroxy acids: lactic, tartaric and salicylic acids. Alpha amino acids are the structural units of proteins. Peptides. Structure and biological role of proteins.
15. Pyrrole. Pyridine. Pyrimidine and purine bases that are part of nucleic acids. Understanding the structure of nucleic acids.
16. Polymerization and polycondensation reactions. General concepts chemistry of macromolecular compounds (HMCs): monomer, polymer, elementary unit, degree of polymerization (polycondensation). Examples various types Navy: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluoroethylene, rubbers, phenol-formaldehyde resins, polypeptides, artificial and synthetic fibers.
PREFACE
Modern industry, construction, transport, communications, energy, agriculture and medicine use almost all chemical elements and their compounds.
The problem of creating chemical materials is the most important in the revolutionary transformation of radio-electronic and rocket technology, construction equipment, mechanical engineering and instrument making, transport and communications technology.
Creation of more and more advanced equipment for artificial earth satellites and spaceships poses new problems for chemistry and the chemical industry in the creation of polymer and semiconductor materials that do not change properties over a wide temperature range and are resistant to radiation.
New advances in chemistry in obtaining ultra-pure single crystals led to the creation of transistor technology.
New advances in chemistry in the production of ferrites have opened the way for the development of cybernetic and radar technology.
In our days chemical technology, gradually displacing mechanical technology from most industries, opens up great prospects for increasing the productivity of social labor.
Chemistry creates new forms mineral fertilizers and new breeding tools for obtaining high-yielding species of agricultural plants.
Chemistry has made a great contribution to the knowledge of the processes occurring in living matter and the laws of heredity.
Chemicals and their transformations are subject to the periodic law of chemical elements by D. I. Mendeleev and the theory of chemical structure by A. M. Butlerov.
The most important sections of chemistry - electrolytic dissociation, redox reactions, electrolysis, corrosion of metals - are closely linked by the authors with the information that students received in high school in physics.
The manual briefly outlines all the issues of the chemistry program for those entering universities and provides solutions to problems in all its sections. This manual summarizes the material on chemistry on a new basis high school and is a transitional step to studying a chemistry course in higher education.
Sections “Basic laws and concepts of chemistry” and “Inorganic chemistry” were written by candidate of chemical sciences A. L. Makarenya, section “ Organic chemistry"Written by candidate of chemical sciences P. M. Zavlin.
The manual takes into account the experience of teaching chemistry at preparatory courses at the Leningrad University named after A. A. Zhdanov and the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute of Communications named after Professor M. A. Bonch-Bruevich.
The editor and authors are grateful to the reviewers Prof. V. I. Semishin, Department of Methods of Teaching Chemistry, Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after. A. I. Herzen (head of the department, Prof. A. D. Smirnov), as well as prof. Ya. M. Slobodin, associate professor. Ya. M. Veprik, V. E. Mayorova, Ph.D. chem. Sci. V.I. Artemyev, honorary RSFSR school teacher K. G. Kolosova for valuable comments on the manuscript.
Please send comments and advice aimed at improving the manual to the “Higher School” publishing house.
Professor V.V. Razumovsky
PART I
BASIC LAWS and concepts of CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
Physics and chemistry are the main sciences about the structure and properties of matter. A few decades ago, the great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev wrote: “The time is not far when knowledge of physics and chemistry will be the same sign and means of education as knowledge of the classics was considered a hundred, two hundred years ago. They (physics and chemistry - Author) constitute in our time one of the means of success in all branches of knowledge and their applications.” Before our eyes these words are being justified. The collaboration of the two sciences led to the discovery of the structure of the atom, the creation of nuclear energy, semiconductor technology, and remarkable discoveries in the field of synthetic materials (inorganic - artificial diamonds, semiconductors, etc.; organic - rubbers, plastics, fibers; organoelement - inorganic rubbers, siloxanes, etc. .p.).
The study of chemical phenomena is impossible without basic ideas about the structure of matter (atomic-molecular science, the study of the structure of atoms and the theory of chemical bonds). The foundation for the study of the properties of inorganic compounds is the periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev, and for the study of the properties of organic compounds - the theory of A. M. Butlerov on the structure of organic compounds. Only a deep understanding of these basic theories of chemistry can lead to a correct understanding of numerous classes of chemical compounds, to a solid knowledge of their composition, structure and properties.
When reviewing chemistry, special attention should be paid not only to revealing the relationship between elements, but also to identifying the dependence of their properties on their structure and composition. It is impossible to understand the reasons for the occurrence of chemical reactions without taking into account the structure of atoms, ions, molecules, radicals, without taking into account the types of chemical bonds in the initial and final substances. An important aspect of the study of the chemical process is the concepts of equilibrium and energy of a chemical reaction. The presentation of these issues is given an appropriate place in the manual.
It is advisable to start preparing for entrance exams in chemistry by becoming familiar with the “Program of entrance exams for applicants to higher educational institutions of the USSR.”
The program consists of two sections: “General guidelines” and “Scope of requirements”. Unfortunately, applicants rarely pay attention to the “General Instructions” section. Meanwhile, its careful consideration will allow you to correctly understand the requirements for applicants for the entrance exam. For example, this section specifies that in chemistry the examinee must demonstrate a clear knowledge of basic chemical laws, concepts, and theories. What does it mean?
When initially studying a course in inorganic chemistry in high school, atomic-molecular theory is considered, and then - the theory of the structure of the atom and some ideas about the structure of matter. In the light of the theory of atomic structure, a number of concepts of atomic-molecular theory have been clarified. These clarifications should be taken into account in the answer.
When repeating a course in inorganic chemistry, it is advisable to pay attention to the development of basic concepts.
The General Guidelines state that the examinee must demonstrate knowledge of the terminology of the subject. Unfortunately, many applicants have poor command of terminology. Very often this is explained by inattention, and sometimes by the fact that terminology is not given due importance, and this is what happens. Not all applicants, for example, clearly know the names (nomenclature) of chemical compounds. During the exam, they are asked to write the formula for potassium sulfide, and those who answer write the formula for potassium sulfide (K2S03) and even potassium sulfate (K2S04).
Next. It is necessary to clearly know what is called an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. Do not confuse concepts such as the valency of an atom in a compound and the charge of an ion.
For example, in the compound HN03, the valency of the elements is HN03. In solution, this compound dissociates into H1 and NO3 ions. There can be no talk of any N5+ ions. Meanwhile, applicants often say that the N5+ ion can act as an oxidizing agent in this compound.
The examinee must demonstrate knowledge general characteristics the most important elements and their main compounds, i.e. clearly describe the position of the element in the system and, based on the patterns that were studied in high school, show knowledge of the properties of the most important compounds of this element.
It is advisable to build a story about the properties of compounds formed by any element in a certain logical sequence: the position of the element in the system, its electronic configuration, properties of a simple substance (type of connection), properties of its compounds (type of connection).
One of the requirements of the “General Instructions” for applicants is the ability to use D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic system within the scope of the program. It's about in this case, not only about the need to know in detail the structure and properties of volumes of elements of the first three periods of the system, but also about the ability to apply knowledge of general laws to describe the properties of those elements, the study of which was not provided for in the high school chemistry curriculum. For example, you need to be able to describe the properties of arsenic or tin, write several characteristic compounds of chromium or some other element of an additional subgroup. Of course, this can be done based on knowledge of the properties of known elements.
The examinee must demonstrate an understanding of critical chemical manufacturing processes. He is not required to know the details of equipment, laboratory techniques, features of the course of reactions, etc. He must know the chemical side of production processes, as well as the basic principles on which the implementation and economic efficiency of the most important processes are based.
The second section of the “General Instructions” states that examinees are required to know the properties of the most important substances on which their use in the national economy is based. Applicants should pay attention to such sections of the textbook on inorganic chemistry as the use of sulfuric acid, the use of hydrochloric acid in the national economy, etc.
Finally, the General Guidelines emphasize that the examinee must demonstrate the ability to solve high-quality problems in relation to the material specified in the syllabus.
This manual will cover the most typical tasks.
§ 1. ABOUT THE SUBJECT OF CHEMISTRY
In the literature on chemistry you can find the following definitions of the subject of chemistry:
“Chemistry is the science of chemical elements” (D. I. Mendeleev).
“Chemistry is the science of substances, their transformations and the phenomena accompanying these transformations” (the most common definition of chemistry).
“Chemistry of the 20th century is the science of the synthesis of materials with certain properties” (the definition of chemistry that has been given recently).
It cannot be said that one definition is better, another is worse, one is correct, the other is not. Each of the above definitions is correct, although it emphasizes one advantageous aspect chemical science.
Pay attention to the second definition and the sequence in listing the objects of study.
Substances. Their transformations. Phenomena accompanying these transformations.
The substance itself and its transformations are studied not only by chemistry, but also by other sciences, for example, physics and biology related to chemistry. This means that each of these sciences does not study all and not all transformations of matter. Chemistry is only interested in those transformations in which a change in the composition of a substance occurs, leading to a qualitative change in the properties of the substance. The melting of ice or the boiling of water is studied by physics, and the interaction of water with sodium or sulfuric acid is studied by chemistry, because in the first case only the aggregate state of the substance changes, but not the composition, and in the second, the initial and final substances differ in composition and properties, not only physical ones , but also chemical.
It is clear that the changes that occur in chemical processes are directly dependent on what elements the interacting substances consist of.
The degree of development of any science is determined by what it gives for practice, whether the discoveries made in it are realized. The 18th century is called the century of steam, the 19th century is called the century of electricity; By analogy, the 20th century was called the century of atomic energy, synthetic (artificial) materials and the revelation of the secrets of life. Humanity has long sought to master energy resources, and the most tangible successes in this area have been made by physics. The problem of creating a wide range of materials with specified properties has arisen only in recent decades.
The synthesis of new materials would be impossible without identifying the specific features of the chemistry of each element.
The development of rocket, nuclear, and semiconductor technology would be impossible without the creation of new materials.
The third of the above definitions of the subject of chemistry emphasizes precisely this side of its development, which has emerged in recent decades.
§ 2. The importance of chemistry, the role of chemistry in creating the material and technical base of communism
The meaning of chemistry. As human society develops, the ever-increasing role of chemistry in mastering the energy and material resources of nature appears. So, along with machining chemical processing of wood and stone has become widespread; smelting of metals from ores, chemical synthesis, etc.
From the primitive use of fuel to generate heat, humanity has moved to the wider use of wood, coal and oil, on the basis of which not only new types of fuel (for example, gaseous) have been obtained, but also a whole series other essential products. In turn, they learned to convert the energy of chemical energy into electrical energy (galvanic apments, batteries, fuel cells). Finally, materials with specific, predetermined properties are now being widely produced. The active intervention of chemistry in the activities of a living organism begins.
Widespread industrial use of the achievements of chemistry turned out to be possible only at a certain stage of development of human society, at a certain stage of development of the productive forces of society. To implement chemical synthesis, chemical processing of materials requires appropriate installations and apparatus, control devices, production automation, sufficient energy capacity, and preliminary preparation of raw materials.
The role of chemistry in creating the material and technical base of communism. The Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, adopted at the XXII Congress of the CPSU, states that the main economic task of the party and the Soviet people is to create the material and technical base of communism within two decades. To create such a base, it is also necessary to widely use chemistry in the national economy.
Academician A.E. Fersman wrote in one of his works: “...the idea of chemicalization in combination with the idea of electrification is an idea of exceptional importance, because it takes the use of natural resources to a higher level...”.
Chemicalization of the national economy means: 1) creation of a permanent material base for the implementation and improvement of technological processes; 2) introduction into all sectors of industry and everyday life of chemical methods of processing substances, leading to a radical change in the technology and economics of production, living and cultural conditions of life and work of the population; 3) increasing the quantity and quality of industrial and agricultural products.
As a result of development chemical industry in our country in 1940 the volume of chemical production increased 18 times compared to 1913, and in 1951 our country took second place in the world (after the USA) in terms of total production chemical products, and according to some indicators (coke, glass, cement) we are in first place. During the years of Soviet power, Soviet scientists developed many important scientific and technological problems. Suffice it to say, for example, that in the USSR, for the first time in the world, synthetic rubber was obtained and the technology for its industrial production was developed, artificial diamonds were obtained, and new materials were created for space and nuclear technology.
Works of A. E. Favorsky and his school on the synthesis of diene hydrocarbons and new polymers based on them, A. N. Nesmeyanov and his school - in the field of organoelement compounds, K. A. Andrianov - on the synthesis of organosilicon compounds, G. A. Ra -Zuvaev - in the chemistry of free radicals, N.N. Semenov and his school in the field of chemical kinetics, G.N. Flerova and his colleagues in the production of transuranium elements (No. 102, No. 104) played a huge role in the development of domestic and world chemical science, in fulfilling the tasks of communist construction in our country.
The directives of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU provide for a further increase in the pace of development of the chemical and petrochemical industries. Thus, by 1970 it is planned to increase the production of mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers and gas by almost 2 times, and plastics and resins - by almost 3 times.
The modern development of science puts on the agenda the solution of a number of complex tasks and problems, such as problems of oncology, virology, genetics, on the one hand (connection with biology), etc. on the other hand, plasma chemistry, chemistry elementary particles, cosmochemistry (connection with physics).
Chapter I
BASIC REPRESENTATIONS OF ATOMIC-MOLECULAR THEORY. THE IMPORTANT LAWS OF CHEMISTRY
Historically, the study of matter proceeded in successive stages: from knowledge of the visible, accessible to the senses and the simplest instruments, to penetration into the world of particles and phenomena, the knowledge of which is possible with the help of very sensitive instruments. Even in ancient times, the idea of the atomic structure of matter was expressed. At the beginning of the 19th century. The atomic-molecular hypothesis was developed, according to which all substances are composed of molecules, and molecules are made of atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of matter.
This knowledge of matter by means of chemistry can be represented schematically as follows:
bodies of nature
chemical compounds - molecules - atoms
Studies of metal oxidation reactions carried out in the 18th century played an important role in creating the foundations of atomic-molecular theory. M. V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier. They also formulated the law of conservation of mass of reacting substances.
However, an explanation of both this law and other concepts of that time (equivalents), which arose as a result of the study of the weight quantities of reacting substances, turned out to be possible in the 19th century. from the standpoint of Dalton's atomic theory and Avogadro's molecular theory.
The periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements, discovered by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869, contributed to “the strengthening of atomistic concepts in chemistry. Opening D. II. Mendeleev marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of the doctrine of the structure of matter, in the discovery of the complex structure of the atom.
The spectral analysis and discovery of X-rays, the discovery of noble gases and the phenomena of radioactivity, and the determination of the charge and mass of the electron led to the experimental discovery of the complex structure of atoms.
§ 1. ATOMIC-MOLECULAR THEORY
Atomic-molecular theory is the first theory of the structure of matter, developed on the basis of quantitative concepts, mainly of two sciences - physics and chemistry. The very name “atomic-molecular theory” suggests that issues of the structure of matter are considered here at the level of atoms and molecules. This doctrine indicates qualitative differences in the composition of a substance (molecules and atoms) and gives quantitative characteristics (the weight of atoms and molecules), and for substances in the gaseous state, the volume of a gram molecule.
According to this doctrine, substances consist of atoms and molecules. A molecule is more complex than an atom. A molecule of a simple substance consists of atoms of one element, a molecule of a complex substance consists of atoms of different elements.
Molecules are the smallest particles of a substance that retain its composition and chemical properties.
Atoms are the smallest material particles of an element, reflecting its chemical properties in a free state.
At the same time, atoms are components molecules that are exchanged during chemical reactions.
Briefly, the essence of atomic-molecular teaching comes down to the following:
1. All substances consist of atoms and molecules.
2. Atoms of different elements differ in weight, size and properties. Molecules of the same substance are the same, molecules of different substances differ in composition, weight, size, physical and chemical properties.
1 In accordance with modern ideas about the structure of matter, based on the doctrine of types of chemical bonds, the statement that all substances consist of molecules needs to be clarified (see further, p. 98)
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Kuzmenko et al. Chemistry. For high school students and those entering universities. The manual is a textbook and reference book on chemistry. 525 pages. Size 4.7 MB. djvu.
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Kuzmenko, Eremin, Popkov. A short course in chemistry. For those entering universities. 2002 410 pp. PDF. Size 12.4 MB.
The manual is intended for schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. The manual outlines the modern fundamentals of chemistry in a brief, but informative and clear manner. These are the basics that every high school graduate must understand and absolutely must know for anyone who sees himself as a chemistry, medical, or biologist student of the 21st century. In those parts: 1. Theoretical chemistry, 2. Inorganic chemistry. 3. Organic chemistry.
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T.N. Litvinova, E.D. Melnikova, M.V. Solovyova, L.T. Azhipa, N.K. Vyskubova. Chemistry in tasks for applicants to universities. 2009 832 pp. PDF. 4.7 MB.
The collection contains more than 2,500 problems covering the main topics of the school chemistry course. Among them are qualitative and calculated standard problems with solutions and problems different levels difficulties to solve independently. Answers are given to all problems, and detailed solutions are given to the most difficult ones.
For each topic, theoretical material is presented, mainly in the form of tables - basic concepts, laws of chemistry, formulas, classifications, properties, methods of obtaining inorganic and organic substances.
The manual will help in preparing for final exams in high school, passing the Unified State Exam and entrance exams to a university. The book is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.
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Nekrashevich I. Chemistry. 8 - 11 grades. 2008 304 pp. PDF. 1.7 MB.
Does chemistry seem like a difficult and incomprehensible subject to you? You don’t know how to solve chemical problems, write reaction equations, build formulas?
The chemistry tutor you hold in your hands will help solve these problems.
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G.K. Prokhorova. Qualitative chemical analysis. Workshop for schoolchildren. 2002 33 pp. PDF. in the general archive 424 KB.
The workshop is intended for 9th grade students of schools with in-depth study of chemistry and schools of young chemists to familiarize them with the basics of analytical chemistry.
Prepared at the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University.
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Rudzitis G.E., Feldman F.G. Chemistry. 7-11 grade. In 2 books. 1985 djvu. two books in one archive. 12.3 MB.
Book 1. 204 pp. Textbook for grades 7-11 of evening (shift) secondary school secondary school. The textbook corresponds to the current ones school programs and a mandatory minimum of chemical education. It has the classic structure of a school textbook on chemistry and includes all the necessary theoretical and practical material for studying a course in inorganic chemistry.
Book 1. 306 pages. Textbook for grades 7-11 of evening (shift) secondary school. The textbook complies with current school curricula and the mandatory minimum chemical education. It has the classic structure of a school textbook on chemistry and includes all the necessary theoretical and practical material for studying the course of inorganic organic chemistry. In the second book, organic chemistry takes up half of its volume. The material is differentiated by difficulty levels.
Numerous tables, diagrams and drawings facilitate the assimilation and repetition of theoretical and practical material. The accessibility and clarity of the presentation of the basic concepts, definitions and laws of chemistry make it possible to recommend this textbook not only for school teaching, but also for self-education.
When studying chemistry from scratch, it is better to use this textbook rather than modern ones, as it is better and more understandable. This is not my opinion, but that of a professional chemist.
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Semenov. Chemistry: a guide for applicants to universities. 1989 225 pp. djvu. 3.7 MB.
In contrast to existing ones, this manual places emphasis on an in-depth repetition of the basic concepts and laws of chemistry, “key” issues, on the understanding of which the understanding of the factual material studied at school depends. A small number of examples show the main patterns of behavior of chemical systems, general approaches to their consideration, and how the properties of a substance determine its use. The questions and exercises presented are selected from those that were offered at the entrance exams to chemical universities or were used by the author at the Preparatory Department of Leningrad State University. As a rule, the answer does not require cumbersome calculations and you just need to thoroughly understand the basic laws of chemistry.
It is intended primarily for applicants who are independently preparing for the university exam, but it will also be useful for students of preparatory departments and courses.
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Stakheev. All chemistry in 50 tables. All the basic concepts of SCHOOL chemistry are given. It is a kind of cheat sheet - a reminder. 60 pages. Size 1.2 MB. djvu.
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Khomchenko G.P. A manual on chemistry for applicants to universities. 2002 480 pp. PDF. Size 11.6 MB.
All questions are covered in the manual entrance exams in chemistry. For better understanding of the chemistry course, some additional information is provided. At the end of each chapter, typical problems with solutions and tasks for independent work are given. The book is intended for those entering universities. It can also be recommended to chemistry teachers when preparing students to take final exams for a high school course. I liked the guide.
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Chernikova L.P. Cheat sheets for chemistry. 2003 144 pp. PDF. 2.4 MB.
The material is divided into three topics: Basic concepts of chemistry, General chemistry, Organic chemistry. Normal benefit. I don't understand why it has this name.
Hello.
Can you please tell me the recommended textbooks for admission to a medical university in biology and chemistry?
Before you start preparing for exams for next year, I would like to decide on textbooks. I finished school a long time ago, so I’ll have to prepare from scratch.
Based on what is written on the forums, the textbooks below are the most cited.
CHEMISTRY:
1). “The beginnings of chemistry. A modern course for applicants to universities." Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V., Popkov V.A.
2). “A manual on chemistry for those entering universities.” Khomchenko G.P.
3). "Chemistry. 8-11 grades." Rudzitis G.E., Feldman F.G.
4). "Chemistry tutor" Alexander Egorov
5). "Collection of problems and exercises in chemistry." Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V.
6). “A manual on chemistry for those entering universities. Questions, exercises, tasks. Sample exam papers." Puzakov S.A., Popkov V.A.
7). "Solving problems in chemistry." Belavin I.Yu.
8). “Problem book in chemistry. 11th grade." Levkin A.N., Kuznetsova N.E.
BIOLOGY:
1). "General biology: grades 10-11: Textbook for general education institutions." Profile level: In 2 hours. Ed. Shumny V.K., Dymshitsa G.M.
2). “Biology complete course” In 3 volumes (Anatomy, Botany, Zoology). Bilich G.L., Kryzhanovsky V.A.
3). "Biology. For those entering universities" Vladimir Yarygin
4). "Biology. General biology" V. B. Zakharov, S. G. Mamontov, N. I. Sonin, E. T. Zakharova
5). "Biology. In 2 volumes" Edited by N. V. Chebyshev
6). “Human Anatomy: Textbook: in two books” Sapin M.R., Bilic G.L.
7). "Biology. Human anatomy and physiology. 8th grade. In-depth study." Sapin M.R., Sivoglazov V.I., Bryksina Z.G.
8). “Biology for those entering universities” R. G. Zayats, V. E. Butvilovsky, V. V. Davydov, I. V. Rachkovskaya
9). "Fundamentals of Biology. Full course of comprehensive secondary school" A. A. Kamensky, N. A. Sokolova, M. A. Valovaya
10). "Biology. A manual for preparatory departments of medical institutes" N. E. Kovalev, L. D. Shevchuk, O. I. Shchurenko
11). “Preparing for the biology exam” A. G. Lebedev
12). "Biology. Handbook for high school students and applicants to universities. A complete course of preparation for final exams" T. L. Bogdanova, E. A. Solodova
Tell me, if it’s not difficult, what textbooks are best to buy in order to enroll?!
I am very worried that I will waste time on unnecessary books and thereby simply not prepare properly. Help with advice. Please!
Best regards, Alexander Strokin.
I'll write about the chemistry.
1 and 5 almost completely repeat each other, but very good. Take 1 - the theory is described in more detail there, the tasks are the same as in 5.
As far as I know, level 2 tasks are not very difficult, easier than level 1.
3 - a regular school textbook. If you can handle theory level 1, then you can probably do without it.
4 - have not met. Books with that title are scary :)
6 - level is approximately the same as in 1. Good book.
7 - have not met.
8 - the tasks are simple, but many are of the same type. Good for getting your teeth into the school curriculum.
I hope my answer will be useful. Good luck!
Alexander Sergeevich, thank you for your answer! Tell me, what are the best chemistry problem books to buy? Separate for high school or specifically for the Unified State Exam?
Please write YOUR RECOMMENDED LIST OF CHEMISTRY TEXTBOOKS AND CHEMISTRY PROBLEMS (EXERCISES). So that I can finally decide. I will be very grateful to you.
Unfortunately, I wrote this question on many forums, but so far there are no answers from anyone. I don't know what to do. Time goes by, I’m afraid I won’t make it in time and I’m marking time.
Level zero! I completely forgot everything. Today I looked at the test assignments for the Unified State Exam for 2012, 2011, 2010. in chemistry and biology, I don’t know anything at all. I really felt like a fool! I only remember 5% of the answers. Both in biology and chemistry - the same story - zero!
Graduated from school in 2002. And apparently, when entering a university, I will be able to take either the Unified State Exam at the university, or simply the Exams that the same university conducts independently. One of two, in short. I'm completely at a loss here. What's the best way to prepare? What is better to take when applying - the Unified State Exam or the University Exam? Is it better to “sharpen” your brains for the Unified State Exam or just solve problem books and that’s it? WHAT TO DO?!
The Unified State Exam is more understandable and clearly structured; the internal exam is a thing in itself.
But if you have forgotten everything, then preparing for these subjects on your own is problematic; you need someone to help you, guide you, check solutions, answer questions that arise, clarify inaccuracies, and explain approaches to problems. Solving chemical problems using a model is useless; they are very simple and logical, but you need to feel this logic.
And I wouldn’t leave less than a year for preparation.
Let's say my preparation course for the Unified State Exam is divided into 35 large, serious topics. So consider it))
Alexander, since the level is completely zero, in chemistry I would highly recommend E. E. Minchenkov’s textbook for grades 8 and 9.
http://www.labirint.ru/books/280907/
http://www.labirint.ru/books/280910/
It is very lucidly written. Remember the very basics over the summer, both theories and calculations.
Two years ago, when my adult student after medical school took the internal exam in the second medical school, it was practically the same Unified State Exam, only truncated. There were even tasks from the Unified State Exam task bank. I don’t know how it is now.
If you need a textbook, then, of course, Kuzmenko, Eremin.
Puzakov’s and especially Belavin’s problem books for the Unified State Exam are too high a level, you’ll be wasting your time.
Although Puzakov is good, he serves other purposes. If you take a specialized exam, then yes, take Puzakov, but even better - collections of MSU Competitive Problems.
For the Unified State Exam, the textbooks by Doronkin (for parts A and B, and separately part C) and Asanova are best suited. They, of course, have typos and inaccuracies, but they are optimal for the job.
http://www.labirint.ru/books/351705/ - part C in full
http://www.labirint.ru/books/350553/ - thematic tests, part A and B
http://www.labirint.ru/books/269618/ - organics on topics in the Unified State Exam structure, a very useful book
http://www.labirint.ru/books/238816/ - general chemistry, also tests and tasks, according to the structure of the Unified State Exam.
In biology
1) If we talk about textbooks, then you can take:
in botany - Gulenkova, Elenevsky "Biology: botany grade 6"
in zoology - Nikishov, Sharova "Biology: animals 7-8 (or 7th grade)"
in anatomy - Batuev "Biological: human 8th (or 9th grade)"
in general biology - "General Biology" in two volumes, ed. Borodin
2) Benefits - No. 12 from your list or D.A. Solovkov "Unified State Exam in Biology: Practical Preparation"
There is also a manual “Biology. School course in 100 hours” (E.A. Solodova, T.L. Bogdanova). It was made directly to prepare for the Unified State Exam. To get better at tests in all sections of the school course - collections of tests for grades 6.7.8 and 9 (E.A. Solodova. Test tasks.)
Dear Topicstarter, my advice to you is to take Egorov’s book “Chemistry Tutor” and read from the very beginning, this book completely covers the level of the Unified State Exam, it is written clearly, with examples and tests, to practice the material, use FIPI tests, of which there are a lot of which are sold, and These collections are available online.
With all due respect to the textbook by Kuzmenko and Eremin, it is redundant for the Unified State Exam, especially when you start reading it, you will see that the authors include topics that are unnecessary for the Unified State Exam. The textbook by Kuzmenko and Eremin is indispensable if you enroll in chemical universities, where you will have to take an internal exam in chemistry. If you are entering a medical university and, judging by the senior post, the top starter has very little time left and a very weak level, then Kuzmenko-Eremin will not save him, but will only sink him. You need to realistically assess your strengths.
A small addition about Egorov. Take exactly the book you wrote about in point 4. He has another one out, with the word “USE” in the title. They like to offer it in stores instead of the first one, but many of the necessary topics are missing there.
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